System and method for early detection of alzheimers by detecting amyloid-beta using orbital angular momentum

ABSTRACT

An apparatus for measuring a concentration of amyloid-beta within a sample includes signal generation circuitry and a detector. The signal generation circuitry generates a first signal having an applied first orbital angular momentum signature and applies the first signal to the sample. The detector receives the first signal after it passes through the sample and determines the concentration of the amyloid-beta within the sample based on a detected second orbital angular momentum signature within the first signal received from the sample. The detector provides an output of the determined concentration as an indication for determining an early onset of Alzheimer&#39;s.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.62/060,360, filed on Oct. 6, 2014, entitled EARLY DETECTION OF ALZHEIMERVIA A NON-INVASIVE EYE SCAN TO DETECT BETA-AMYLOID USING LASER BEAMSWITH ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM (Atty. Dkt. No. NXGN-32379), which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

This application is also a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. application Ser.No. 14/339,836, filed on Jul. 24, 2014, entitled SYSTEM AND METHOD FORMAKING CONCENTRATION MEASUREMENTS WITHIN A SAMPLE MATERIAL USING ORBITALANGULAR MOMENTUM (Atty. Dkt. No. NXGN-32196), which published on Sep.17, 2015, as U.S. Application Publication No. 2015-0260650. U.S.application Ser. No. 14/339,836 and U.S. Application Publication No.2015-0260650 are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to the early detection of Alzheimer, andmore particularly, to the early detection of Alzheimer by detectingamyloid-beta concentrations using orbital angular momentum.

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease is a serious affliction arising most often inindividuals as they reach old age. Symptoms of Alzheimer's includeserious memory loss, confusion and behavioral changes. The visiblesymptoms of Alzheimer's often only began arising in the later stages ofthe affliction. Changes within an individual's brain having Alzheimer'sbegin long before the appearance of memory loss and other visiblesymptoms. Existing treatments and medications have been shown to be moreeffective when begun upon the early stages of Alzheimer's. Thus, thereis a need for providing for the early detection of Alzheimer's.

There are several current methods used in diagnosing Alzheimer's. Theseinclude the use of positron emission tomography (PET) imaging thatemploys ligands which selectively bind to amyloid-beta plaques that areone indication of Alzheimer's. In another technique magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI) biomarkers may be detected as an indication ofAlzheimer's. These include the reduction of brain volume, specificallyhippocampal volume which controls the memory part of the brain. Anotherindication may be decreased concentrations of amyloid-beta in thecerebral spinal fluid of an individual. Each of these methods havevarious drawbacks such as being expensive in the case of PET imaging andMRI or invasive and painful in the case of a lumbar puncture required toobtain cerebral spinal fluid.

Concentration measurement of organic and non-organic materials withinhuman tissue is an increasingly important aspect of healthcare forindividuals. The development of non-invasive measurement techniques formonitoring biological and metabolic agents within human tissue is animportant aspect of diagnosis therapy of various human diseases and mayplay a key role in the proper management of diseases. One such materialrelevant to Alzheimer's is amyloid-beta. Thus, there is a need for animproved manner of amyloid-beta detection to better improve detection ofearly stages of Alzheimer's.

SUMMARY

The present invention, as disclosed and describe herein, in one aspectthereof, comprises an apparatus for measuring a concentration ofamyloid-beta within a sample that includes a signal generation circuitryand a detector. The signal generation circuitry generates a first signalhaving an applied first orbital angular momentum signature and appliesthe first signal to the sample. The detector receives the first signalafter it passes through the sample and determines the concentration ofthe amyloid-beta within the sample based on a detected second orbitalangular momentum signature within the first signal received from thesample. The detector provides an output of the determined concentrationas an indication for determining an early onset of Alzheimer's.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding, reference is now made to thefollowing description taken in conjunction with the accompanyingDrawings in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates the manner in which amyloid-beta deposits affect thebrain of an individual;

FIG. 2 illustrates a human eye;

FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of a method for detecting Alzheimer'sbased upon amyloid-beta concentrations within an eye;

FIG. 4A illustrates an OAM detector detecting amyloid-beta within aneye;

FIG. 4B illustrates the manner in which an OAM generator generates anOAM twisted beam;

FIG. 5 illustrates a general representation of a manner for determininga concentration of a particular material within a sample using a lightbeam or other wave;

FIG. 6 illustrates a light beam having orbital angular momentum impartedthereto;

FIG. 7 illustrates a series of parallel wavefronts;

FIG. 8 illustrates a wavefront having a Poynting vector spiraling arounda direction of propagation of the wavefront;

FIG. 9 illustrates a plane wavefront;

FIG. 10 illustrates a helical wavefront;

FIG. 11 illustrates a plane wave having only variations in the spinvector;

FIG. 12 illustrates the application of a unique orbital angular momentumto a wave;

FIGS. 13A-13C illustrate the differences between signals havingdifferent orbital angular momentum applied thereto;

FIG. 14 illustrates the propagation of Poynting vectors for variouseigenmodes;

FIG. 15 illustrates a block diagram of an apparatus for providingconcentration measurements of various materials using orbital angularmomentum;

FIG. 16 illustrates an emitter of the system of FIG. 14;

FIG. 17 illustrates a fixed orbital angular momentum generator of thesystem of FIG. 14;

FIGS. 18A-18D illustrate various holograms for use in applying anorbital angular momentum to a plane wave signal;

FIG. 19 illustrates the relationship between Hermite-Gaussian modes andLaguerre-Gaussian modes;

FIG. 20 illustrates super-imposed holograms for applying orbital angularmomentum to a signal;

FIG. 21 illustrates a tunable orbital angular momentum generator for usein the system of FIG. 11;

FIG. 22 illustrates a block diagram of a tunable orbital angularmomentum generator including multiple hologram images therein;

FIG. 23 illustrates the manner in which the output of the OAM generatormay be varied by applying different orbital angular momentums thereto;

FIG. 24 illustrates an alternative manner in which the OAM generator mayconvert a Hermite-Gaussian beam to a Laguerre-Gaussian beam;

FIG. 25 illustrates the manner in which holograms within an OAMgenerator may twist a beam of light;

FIG. 26 illustrates the manner in which a sample receives an OAM twistedwave and provides an output wave having a particular OAM signature;

FIG. 27 illustrates the manner in which orbital angular momentuminteracts with a molecule around its beam axis;

FIG. 28 illustrates a block diagram of the matching circuitry foramplifying a received orbital angular momentum signal;

FIG. 29 illustrates the manner in which the matching module may usenon-linear crystals in order to generate a higher order orbital angularmomentum light beam;

FIG. 30 illustrates a block diagram of an orbital angular momentumdetector and user interface;

FIG. 31 illustrates the effect of sample concentrations upon the spinangular polarization and orbital angular polarization of a light beampassing through a sample;

FIG. 32 more particularly illustrates the process that alters theorbital angular momentum polarization of a light beam passing through asample;

FIG. 33 provides a block diagram of a user interface of the system ofFIG. 15;

FIG. 34 illustrates a network configuration for passing around datacollected via devices such as that illustrated in FIG. 15;

FIG. 35 provides a block diagram of a more particular embodiment of anapparatus for measuring the concentration of glucose using orbitalangular momentum;

FIG. 36 illustrates a process for testing amyloid-beta concentrations;

FIG. 37 illustrates an amyloid-beta preparation process;

FIG. 38 illustrates an example of a light beam that is altered by ahologram to produce an OAM twisted beam;

FIG. 39 illustrates various OAM modes produced by a spatial lightmodulator;

FIG. 40 illustrates an ellipse;

FIG. 41 is a flow diagram illustrating a process for analyzing intensityimages; and

FIG. 42 illustrates an ellipse fitting algorithm.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Referring now to the drawings, wherein like reference numbers are usedherein to designate like elements throughout, the various views andembodiments of system and method for making concentration measurementswithin a sample material using orbital angular momentum are illustratedand described, and other possible embodiments are described. The figuresare not necessarily drawn to scale, and in some instances the drawingshave been exaggerated and/or simplified in places for illustrativepurposes only. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate the manypossible applications and variations based on the following examples ofpossible embodiments.

Alzheimer's is a type of dementia that causes problems with memory,thinking and behavior. Symptoms usually develop slowly and get worseover time, becoming severe enough to interfere with daily tasks.Alzheimer's is the most common form of dementia, a general term formemory loss and other intellectual abilities serious enough to interferewith daily life. Alzheimer's disease accounts for 60 to 80 percent ofdementia cases.

Alzheimer's is not a normal part of aging, although the greatest knownrisk factor is increase aging and the majority of people withAlzheimer's are 65 and older. However, Alzheimer's is not just a diseaseof old age. Up to 5 percent of people with the disease have early onsetAlzheimer's (also known as younger-onset) which often appears when aperson is in their 40s or 50s.

Alzheimer's worsens over time. Alzheimer's is a progressive disease,where dementia symptoms gradually worsen over a number of years. In itsearly stages, memory loss is mild but with late stage Alzheimer's,individuals lose the ability to carry on a conversation and respond totheir environment. Alzheimer's is the sixth leading cause of death inthe United States. Those with Alzheimer's live an average of 8 yearsafter their symptoms become noticeable to others, but survival can rangefrom 4 to 20 years, depending on age and other health conditions.

Alzheimer's has no current cure, but treatments for symptoms areavailable and research continues. Although current Alzheimer'streatments cannot stop Alzheimer's from progressing, they cantemporarily slow the worsening of dementia symptoms and improve thequality of life for those with Alzheimer's and their caregivers. Today,there is a worldwide effort underway to find better ways to treat thedisease, delay its onset and prevent it from developing.

Many people with early onset Alzheimer's are in their 40s and 50s. Theyhave families, careers or are even caregivers themselves whenAlzheimer's disease strikes. In the United States, it is estimated thatapproximately 200,000 people have early onset Alzheimer's.

Since healthcare providers generally don't look for Alzheimer's diseasein younger people, getting an accurate diagnosis of early onsetAlzheimer's can be a long and frustrating process. Symptoms may beincorrectly attributed to stress or there may be conflicting diagnosesfrom different healthcare professionals. People who have early onsetAlzheimer's may be in any stage of dementia.

Not everyone will experience the same symptoms or progress at the samerate. The following are the seven stages that patients go through whensuffering from Alzheimer's. Stage 1 involves no impairment and normalfunctions. The person does not experience any memory problems in aninterview with a medical professional does not show any evidence orsymptoms of dementia. Stage 2 only shows very mild cognitive decline andmay be a normal age-related change or the earliest signs of Alzheimer'sdisease. The person may feel as if he or she is having memory lapsesexperiencing symptoms such as forgetting familiar words or the locationof everyday objects. However, no symptoms of the dementia can bedetected during a medical examination or by friends, family orcoworkers. Stage 3 patients illustrate a mild cognitive decline and thisearly stage of Alzheimer's can be diagnosed in some, but not allindividuals. Friends, families or coworkers begin to noticedifficulties. During a detailed medical interview, doctors may be ableto detect problems in memory or concentration. Common Stage 3difficulties include the noticeable problems coming up with the rightword or name, trouble remembering names when introduced to new people,having noticeably greater difficulty performing task in social or worksettings, forgetting material that one has just read, losing hermisplacing a valuable object and increasing trouble with planning ororganizing.

A Stage 4 sufferer will exhibit moderate cognitive decline and may beclassified as mild or early stage Alzheimer's disease. At this point, acareful medical interview should be able to detect clear-cut symptoms inseveral areas such as forgetfulness of recent events; impaired abilityto perform challenging mental arithmetic, for example, counting backwardfrom 100 by sevens; greater difficulty in forming complex tasks such asplanning dinner for guests, paying bills or managing finances,forgetfulness about one's own personal history; and becoming moody orwithdrawn, especially in socially or mentally challenging situations.Stage 5 patients illustrate moderately severe cognitive decline and maybe classified as moderate or mid-stage Alzheimer's disease. Sufferersexhibit gaps in memory and thinking that are noticeable, and individualsbegin to need help with day-to-day activities. At this stage, those withAlzheimer's may be unable to recall their own address or telephonenumber or the high school or college from which they graduated. They maybecome confused about where they are or what day it is. They havetrouble with less challenging mental arithmetic, such as countingbackwards from 40 by subtracting fours or from 20 by 2. They need helpchoosing proper clothing for the season or the occasion. They stillremember significant details about themselves and their family andrequire no assistance with eating or using the toilet.

Stage 6 sufferers exhibit severe cognitive decline. They are classifiedas moderately severe or mid-stage Alzheimer's disease. Their memorycontinues to worsen and personality changes may take place. They needextensive help with daily activities. At this stage, the individuals maylose awareness of recent events as well as their surroundings. They mayremember their own name but have difficulty with their personal history.Finally, Stage 7 patients demonstrate very severe cognitive decline andare classified as severe or late stage Alzheimer's disease. In the finalstages of Alzheimer's, individuals lose the ability to respond to theirenvironment, to carry on a conversation and eventually to controlmovement. They may still say words or phrases. The individual needs helpwith much of their daily personal care including eating or using thetoilet. I may also lose the ability to smile, to sit without support andto hold their heads up. Reflexes become abnormal and muscles grow rigidwhich may impair swallowing.

Alzheimer's disease may be identified by plaques forming on the brain ofthe patient formed by deposits of amyloid-beta that can result inneuronal death. Amyloid-beta is a peptide that contains between 36-43amino acids which are found in plaques in Alzheimer's. The most commonpeptide found in brain plaques in the eye are amyloid beta-42 andamyloid beta-40.

Amyloid-beta is a chiral solution that has been observed to causeorbital angular momentum (OAM) beams to exhibit unique topologicalevolution when interacting therewith. Given these unique topologicalfeatures one can detect the amyloid-beta concentration of a given samplebased upon a specific signature in both amplitude and phasemeasurements. Molecular chirality signifies a structural handednessassociated with variance under spatial inversion or a combination ofinversion and rotation, equivalent to the usual criteria of a lack ofany proper axes of rotation. Something is chiral when something cannotbe made identical to its reflection. Chiral molecules that are notsuperimposable on their mirror image are known as Enantiomers.Traditionally, chiral optics engages circularly polarized light, even inthe case of optical rotation, interpretation of the phenomenon commonlyrequires the plane polarized state to be understood as a superpositionof circular polarizations with opposite handedness. For circularlypolarized light, the left and right forms designate the sign ofintrinsic spin angular momentum, ±h and also the helicity of the locusdescribed by the associated electromagnetic field vectors. For thisreason its interactions with matter are enantiomerically specific.

The continuous symmetry measure (CSM) is used to evaluate the degree ofsymmetry of a molecule, or the chirality. This value ranges from 0 to100. The higher the symmetry value of a molecule the more symmetrydistorted the molecule and the more chiral the molecule. The measurementis based on the minimal distance between the chiral molecule and thenearest achiral molecule.

The continuous symmetry measure may be achieved according to theequation:

${S(G)} = {100 \times \min \frac{1}{{Nd}^{2}}{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{N}\; {{Q_{k} - {\hat{Q}}_{k}}}^{2}}}$

Q_(k): The original structure{circumflex over (Q)}_(k): The symmetry-operated structureN: Number of verticesd: Size normalization factor*The scale is 0-1 (0-100):The larger S(G) is, the higher is the deviation from G-symmetry

SG as a continuous chirality measure may be determined according to:

${S(G)} = {100 \times \min \frac{1}{{Nd}^{2}}{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{N}\; {{Q_{k} - {\hat{Q}}_{k}}}^{2}}}$

G: The achiral symmetry point group which minimizes S(G)Achiral molecule: S(G)=0

An achiral molecule has a value of S(G)=0. The more chiral a molecule isthe higher the value of S(G).

The considerable interest in orbital angular momentum has been enhancedthrough realization of the possibility to engineer optical vortices.Here, helicity is present in the wavefront surface of theelectromagnetic fields and the associated angular momentum is termed“orbital”. The radiation itself is commonly referred to as a ‘twisted’or ‘helical’ beam. Mostly, optical vortices have been studied only intheir interactions with achiral matter—the only apparent exception issome recent work on liquid crystals. It is timely and of interest toassess what new features, if any, can be expected if such beams are usedto interrogate any system whose optical response is associated withenantiomerically specific molecules.

We first have to construct in generalized form the criteria formanifestations of chirality in optical interactions. For simplicity,materials with a unique enantiomeric specificity are assumed—signifyinga chirality that is intrinsic and common to all molecular components (orchromophores) involved in the optical response. Results for systems ofthis kind will also apply to single molecule studies. Longer rangetranslation/rotation order can also produce chirality, as for example intwisted nematic crystals, but such mesoscopic chirality cannot directlyengender enantiomerically specific interactions. The only exception iswhere optical waves probe two or more electronically distinct,dissymmetrically oriented but intrinsically achiral molecules orchromophores.

Chiroptical interactions can be distinguished by their electromagneticorigins: for molecular systems in their usual singlet electronic groundstate, they involve the spatial variation of the electric and magneticfields associated with the input of optical radiation. This variationover space can be understood to engage chirality either through itscoupling with di-symmetrically placed, neighboring chromophore groups(Kirkwood's two-group model, of limited application) or more generallythrough the coupling of its associated electric and magnetic fields withindividual groups. As chirality signifies a local breaking of parity itpermits an interference of electric and magnetic interactions. Even inthe two group case, the paired electric interactions of the systemcorrespond to electric and magnetic interactions of the single entitywhich the two groups comprise. Thus, for convenience, the term ‘chiralcenter’ is used in the following to denote either chromophore ormolecule.

Referring now to FIG. 1, there is illustrated the manner in whichamyloid-beta deposits affects the brain of an individual. Amyloid-betadeposits such as aggregated amyloid-beta oligomers 102, fibrilaramyloid-beta 104 and plaques 106 act as pro-inflammatory triggers onneurons 108 within the brain. These pro-inflammatory triggers causemicroglia activation causing the creation of various neurotoxic factors110 causing neuron death/damage 112. The neuron death/damage 112 causesthe creation of injury signals 114.

One manner for detecting the early onset of Alzheimer's disease has beenthe detection of amyloid-beta within the eye of a patient. Referring nowto FIG. 2, there is illustrated the details of a human eye. The eye 202is surrounded by a cornea 204. The corneal thickness is approximately0.449 mm. Behind the cornea 204 is a lens 208. Between the cornea 204and the lands 208 is the aqueous humor 210. The aqueous humour 210 is atransparent, gelatinous fluid containing low-protein concentrations. Thevitreous humour 212 is located behind the lens 208 within the interiorportion of the eye. The vitreous humour 212 is a clear gel filling thespace between the lens and the retina of the eyeball. When levels ofamyloid-beta significantly increase within the body, this has been shownto be an indication of the onset of early stage Alzheimer's. Oneindication of the increased levels of amyloid-beta is the ability ofdetecting amyloid-beta within the eye of a patient. When amyloid-betalevels are high within an individual, amyloid-beta may often be detectedin the retina 214, the lens 208, the aqueous humor 210 and the vitreoushumor 212 of the eye of the patient. This would provide one manner of anearly indication of Alzheimer's.

Referring now to FIG. 3, there is illustrated a block diagram of amethod for detecting Alzheimer's based upon amyloid-beta concentrationswithin an eye of an individual. Concentration is defined in one exampleas milligrams of sample (Amyloid-Beta or other material) divided bymilliliters of total solution (sample+dilution liquid) for exampleamyloid-beta plus water. An example would be 0.7 mg amyloid-beta/1.5total (water+amyloid-beta). Other measures of concentration would alsobe possible. The process is initiated at step 302 where a sample ofmaterial from one of the areas mentioned herein above is obtained. Thesample may be physically removed from the eye and place in a containeror, alternatively, a detection device may be placed near the eye inorder to utilize a sample that is not removed from the eye. Next, thesample is analyzed at step 304 to detect amyloid-beta within the sample.Determinations may then be made at step 306 as to the possibility of theindividual having early onset Alzheimer's disease based upon theconcentration level of amyloid-beta detected within the sample.

Referring now to FIG. 4A, there is illustrated the use of a detector 402using an orbital angular momentum (OAM) twisted light beam which isplaced in close proximity to an eye 404 in order to detect amyloid-betatherein. OAM is not typically carried by naturally scattered photonswhich makes the use of OAM twisted beams more accurate when identifyinghelicity of chiral molecules because the OAM twisted beam does not haveambient light scattered (noise) in detection. The detector 402 wouldsend out a sampling beam 406 into the eye 404 in order to gatherinformation about the concentrations of amyloid-beta therein. Theresponse beam 408 would provide information as will be more fullydescribed herein below about the presence or absence and levels ofamyloid-beta within the eye 404.

Referring now to FIG. 4B illustrates the manner in which an OAMgenerator 420 may generate an OAM twisted beam 422. The OAM generator410 may use any number of devices to generate the twisted beam 422including holograms with an amplitude mask, holograms with a phase mask,Spatial Light Modulators (SLMs) or Digital Light Processors (DLPs). TheOAM generator 420 receives a light beam 421 (for example from a laser)that includes a series of plane waves. The OAM generator 420 applies anorbital angular momentum to the beam 422. The beam 422 includes a singleOAM mode as illustrated by the intensity diagram 423. The OAM twistedbeam 422 is passed through a sample 424 containing an amyloid-betaconcentration. The presence of amyloid-beta within the sample 424 willcreate new OAM mode levels within the intensity diagram 425. Once thebeam 422 passes through the sample 424, the output beam 426 will havethree distinct signatures associated therewith based on a detection ofamyloid-beta concentrations. These signatures include a change ineccentricity 428 of the intensity pattern, a shift or translation 430 inthe center of gravity of the intensity pattern and a rotation 432 inthree general directions (α, β, γ) of the ellipsoidal intensity patternoutput. These three distinct signatures will appear when a amyloid-betamolecule is detected and the manner of changes of these signaturesrepresent concentration levels. The detection of the helicity spectrumsfrom the beam passing through the sample 424 involves detecting thehelical wave scatters (forward and backward) from the sample material.

Referring now to FIG. 5, there is illustrated a general representationof the manner in which the concentration of a particular material sample502 containing, for example, amyloid beta may be monitored using orbitalangular momentum applied to a light beam or other wave transmittedthrough the material sample 502. The material sample 502 has a beam 504shined through the length of the material sample 502. As mentionedabove, the sample 502 may further be located within an eye or comprisematerial removed from an eye of a patient. After passing through thematerial sample 502, the exiting beam 506 leaves the material sample andmay be analyzed to determine various concentration characteristicswithin the material sample 502. The manner in which the differentcharacteristics of the material sample 502 may be determined within theexiting beam 506 is achieved with respect to an analysis of the orbitalangular momentum signatures that are imparted to the exiting beam 506 bythe concentrations within the material sample 502.

Referring now also to FIG. 6, there is illustrated one embodiment of abeam for use with the system. A light beam 504 consists of a stream ofphotons 602 within the light beam 504. Each photon has an energy ±ω anda linear momentum of ±k which is directed along the light beam axis 604perpendicular to the wavefront. Independent of the frequency, eachphoton 602 within the light beam has a spin angular momentum 606 of ±aligned parallel or antiparallel to the direction of light beampropagation. Alignment of all of the photons 602 spins gives rise to acircularly polarized light beam. In addition to the circularpolarization, the light beams also may carry an orbital angular momentum608 which does not depend on the circular polarization and thus is notrelated to photon spin.

Lasers are widely used in optical experiments as the source ofwell-behaved light beams of a defined frequency. A laser may be used forproviding the light beam 504 as described with respect to FIG. 5. Theenergy flux in any light beam 504 is given by the Poynting vector whichmay be calculated from the vector product of the electric and magneticfields within the light beam. In a vacuum or any isotropic material, thePoynting vector is parallel to the wave vector and perpendicular to thewavefront of the light beam. In a normal laser light, the wavefronts 700are parallel as illustrated in FIG. 7. The wave vector and linearmomentum of the photons are directed along the axis in a z direction702. The field distributions of such light beams are paraxial solutionsto Maxwell's wave equation but although these simple beams are the mostcommon, other possibilities exist.

For example, beams that have l intertwined helical fronts are alsosolutions of the wave equation. The structure of these complicated beamsis difficult to visualize, but their form is familiar from the l=3fusilli pasta. Most importantly, the wavefront has a Poynting vector anda wave vector that spirals around the light beam axis direction ofpropagation as illustrated in FIG. 8 at 802.

A Poynting vector has an azimuthal component on the wave front and anon-zero resultant when integrated over the beam cross-section. The spinangular momentum of circularly polarized light may be interpreted in asimilar way. A beam with a circularly polarized planer wave front, eventhough it has no orbital angular momentum, has an azimuthal component ofthe Poynting vector proportional to the radial intensity gradient. Thisintegrates over the cross-section of the light beam to a finite value.When the beam is linearly polarized, there is no azimuthal component tothe Poynting vector and thus no spin angular momentum.

Thus, the momentum of each photon 602 within the light beam 504 has anazimuthal component. A detailed calculation of the momentum involves allof the electric fields and magnetic fields within the light beam,particularly those electric and magnetic fields in the direction ofpropagation of the beam. For points within the beam, the ratio betweenthe azimuthal components and the z components of the momentum is foundto be l/kr. (where l=the helicity or orbital angular momentum; k=wavenumber 2π/λ; r=the radius vector.) The linear momentum of each photon602 within the light beam 504 is given by k, so if we take the crossproduct of the azimuthal component within a radius vector, r, we obtainan orbital momentum for a photon 602 of l. Note also that the azimuthalcomponent of the wave vectors is l/r and independent of the wavelength.

Referring now to FIGS. 9 and 10, there are illustrated plane wavefrontsand helical wavefronts. Ordinarily, laser beams with plane wavefronts902 are characterized in terms of Hermite-Gaussian modes. These modeshave a rectangular symmetry and are described by two mode indices m 904and n 906. There are m nodes in the x direction and n nodes in the ydirection. Together, the combined modes in the x and y direction arelabeled HG_(mn) 908. In contrast, as shown in FIG. 10 beams with helicalwavefronts 1002 are best characterized in terms of Laguerre-Gaussianmodes which are described by indices I 1003, the number of intertwinedhelices 1004, and p, the number of radial nodes 1006. TheLaguerre-Gaussian modes are labeled LG_(mn) 1010. For l≠0, the phasesingularity on a light beam 904 results in 0 on axis intensity. When alight beam 904 with a helical wavefront is also circularly polarized,the angular momentum has orbital and spin components, and the totalangular momentum of the light beam is (l±) per photon.

Using the orbital angular momentum state of the transmitted energysignals, physical information can be embedded within the electromagneticradiation transmitted by the signals. The Maxwell-Heaviside equationscan be represented as:

${\nabla{\cdot E}} = \frac{\rho}{ɛ_{0}}$${\nabla{\times E}} = {- \frac{\partial B}{\partial t}}$ ∇⋅B = 0${\nabla{\times B}} = {{ɛ_{0}\mu_{0}\frac{\partial E}{\partial t}} + {\mu_{0}{j( {t,x} )}{the}}}$

where ∇ is the del operator, E is the electric field intensity and B isthe magnetic flux density. Using these equations, we can derive 23symmetries/conserve quantities from Maxwell's original equations.However, there are only ten well-known conserve quantities and only afew of these are commercially used. Historically if Maxwell's equationswhere kept in their original quaternion forms, it would have been easierto see the symmetries/conserved quantities, but when they were modifiedto their present vectorial form by Heaviside, it became more difficultto see such inherent symmetries in Maxwell's equations.

The conserved quantities and the electromagnetic field can berepresented according to the conservation of system energy and theconservation of system linear momentum. Time symmetry, i.e. theconservation of system energy can be represented using Poynting'stheorem according to the equations:

$H = {{\sum\limits_{i}\; {m_{i}\gamma_{i}c^{2}}} + {\frac{ɛ_{0}}{2}{\int{^{3}{x( {{E}^{2} + {c^{2}{B}^{2}}} )}}}}}$${\frac{U^{mech}}{t} + \frac{U^{em}}{t} + {\oint_{s^{\prime}}{{^{2}x^{\prime}}{{\hat{n}}^{\prime} \cdot S}}}} = 0$

The space symmetry, i.e., the conservation of system linear momentumrepresenting the electromagnetic Doppler shift can be represented by theequations:

$P = {{\sum\limits_{i}\; {m_{i}\gamma_{i}v_{i}}} + {ɛ_{0}{\int\ {^{3}{x( {E \times B} )}}}}}$${\frac{p^{mech}}{t} + \frac{p^{em}}{t} + {\oint_{s^{\prime}}{{^{2}x^{\prime}}{{\hat{n}}^{\prime} \cdot T}}}} = 0$

The conservation of system center of energy is represented by theequation:

$R = {{\frac{1}{H}{\sum\limits_{i}{( {x_{i} - x_{0}} )m_{i}\gamma_{i}c^{2}}}} + {\frac{ɛ_{0}}{2H}{\int{{^{3}{x( {x - x_{0}} )}}( {{E}^{2} + {c^{2}{B^{2}}}} )}}}}$

Similarly, the conservation of system angular momentum, which gives riseto the azimuthal Doppler shift is represented by the equation:

${\frac{J^{mech}}{t} + \frac{J^{em}}{t} + {\oint_{s^{\prime}}{{^{2}x^{\prime}}{{\hat{n}}^{\prime} \cdot M}}}} = 0$

For radiation beams in free space, the EM field angular momentum J^(em)can be separated into two parts:

J ^(em)=ε₀∫_(V′) d ³ x′(E×A)+ε₀∫_(V′) d ³ x′E _(i)[(x′−x ₀)×∇]A _(i)

For each singular Fourier mode in real valued representation:

$J^{em} = {{{- i}\frac{ɛ_{0}}{2\; \omega}{\int_{V^{\prime}}\ {^{3}{x^{\prime}( {E^{*} \times E} )}}}} - {i\frac{ɛ_{0}}{2\; \omega}{\int_{V^{\prime}}\ {{^{3}x^{\prime}}{E_{i}\lbrack {( {x^{\prime} - x_{0}} ) \times \nabla} \rbrack}E_{i}}}}}$

The first part is the EM spin angular momentum S^(em), its classicalmanifestation is wave polarization. And the second part is the EMorbital angular momentum L^(em) its classical manifestation is wavehelicity. In general, both EM linear momentum P^(em), and EM angularmomentum J^(em)=L^(em)+S^(em) are radiated all the way to the far field.

By using Poynting theorem, the optical vorticity of the signals may bedetermined according to the optical velocity equation:

${{\frac{\partial U}{\partial t} + {\nabla{\cdot S}}} = 0},$

where S is the Poynting vector

S=¼(E×H*+E*×H),

and U is the energy density

U=¼(ε|E| ²+μ₀ |H| ²),

with E and H comprising the electric field and the magnetic field,respectively, and ε and μ₀ being the permittivity and the permeabilityof the medium, respectively. The optical vorticity V may then bedetermined by the curl of the optical velocity according to theequation:

$V = {{\nabla{\times v_{opt}}} = {\nabla{\times ( \frac{{E \times H^{*}} + {E^{*} \times H}}{{ɛ{E}^{2}} + {\mu_{0}{H}^{2}}} )}}}$

Referring now to FIGS. 11 and 12, there are illustrated the manner inwhich a signal and an associated Poynting vector of the signal vary in aplane wave situation (FIG. 11) where only the spin vector is altered,and in a situation wherein the spin and orbital vectors are altered in amanner to cause the Poynting vector to spiral about the direction ofpropagation (FIG. 12).

In the plane wave situation, illustrated in FIG. 11, when only the spinvector of the plane wave is altered, the transmitted signal may take onone of three configurations. When the spin vectors are in the samedirection, a linear signal is provided as illustrated generally at 1104.It should be noted that while 1104 illustrates the spin vectors beingaltered only in the x direction to provide a linear signal, the spinvectors can also be altered in the y direction to provide a linearsignal that appears similar to that illustrated at 1104 but in aperpendicular orientation to the signal illustrated at 1104. In linearpolarization such as that illustrated at 1104, the vectors for thesignal are in the same direction and have a same magnitude.

Within a circular polarization as illustrated at 1106, the signalvectors 1112 are 90 degrees to each other but have the same magnitude.This causes the signal to propagate as illustrated at 1106 and providethe circular polarization 1114 illustrated in FIG. 11. Within anelliptical polarization 1108, the signal vectors 1116 are also 90degrees to each other but have differing magnitudes. This provides theelliptical polarizations 1118 illustrated for the signal propagation408. For the plane waves illustrated in FIG. 11, the Poynting vector ismaintained in a constant direction for the various signal configurationsillustrated therein.

The situation in FIG. 12 illustrates when a unique orbital angularmomentum is applied to a signal. When this occurs, Poynting vector S1210 will spiral around the general direction of propagation 1212 of thesignal. The Poynting vector 1210 has three axial components S_(φ), S_(p)and S_(z) which vary causing the vector to spiral about the direction ofpropagation 612 of the signal. The changing values of the variousvectors comprising the Poynting vector 1210 may cause the spiral of thePoynting vector to be varied in order to enable signals to betransmitted on a same wavelength or frequency as will be more fullydescribed herein. Additionally, the values of the orbital angularmomentum indicated by the Poynting vector 1210 may be measured todetermine concentrations associated with particular materials beingprocessed by a concentration scanning mechanism.

FIGS. 13A-13C illustrate the differences in signals having a differenthelicity (i.e., orbital angular momentum applied thereto). The differinghelicities would be indicative of differing concentration of materialswithin a sample that a beam was being passed through. By determining theparticular orbital angular momentum signature associated with a signal,the concentration amounts of the material could be determined. Each ofthe spiraling Poynting vectors associated with a signal 1302, 1304 and1306 provides a different-shaped signal. Signal 1302 has an orbitalangular momentum of +1, signal 1304 has an orbital angular momentum of+3 and signal 1306 has an orbital angular momentum of −4. Each signalhas a distinct orbital angular momentum and associated Poynting vectorenabling the signal to be indicative of a particular concentration ofmaterial that is associated with the detected orbital angular momentum.This allows determinations of concentrations of various types ofmaterials to be determined from a signal since the orbital angularmomentums are separately detectable and provide a unique indication ofthe concentration of the particular material that has affected theorbital angular momentum of the signal transmitted through the samplematerial.

FIG. 14 illustrates the propagation of Poynting vectors for variousEigen modes. Each of the rings 1420 represents a different Eigen mode ortwist representing a different orbital angular momentum. Each of thedifferent orbital angular momentums is associated with a particularconcentration of a particular material. Detection of orbital angularmomentums provide an indication of the associated material concentrationthat is being monitored by the apparatus. Each of the rings 1420represents a different concentration of a selected material that isbeing monitored. Each of the Eigen modes has a Poynting vector 1422 forgenerating the rings indicating different material concentrations.

Referring now to FIG. 15, there is illustrated a block diagram of theapparatus for providing concentration measurements of various materialsresponsive to the orbital angular momentum detected by the apparatus inaccordance with the principles described herein above. An emitter 1502transmits wave energy 1504 that comprises a series of plane waves. Theemitter 1502 may provide a series of plane waves such as those describespreviously with respect to FIG. 7. The orbital angular momentumgeneration circuitry 1506 generates a series of waves having an orbitalangular momentum applied to the waves 1508 in a known manner. Theorbital angular momentum generation circuitry 1506 may utilize hologramsor some other type of orbital angular momentum generation process aswill be more fully described herein below. The OAM generation circuitry1506 may be generated by transmitting plane waves through a spatiallight modulator (SLM), an amplitude mask or a phase mask. The orbitalangular momentum twisted waves 1508 are applied to a sample material1510 under test. The sample material 1510 contains a material, and theconcentration of the material is determined via a concentrationdetection apparatus in accordance with the process described herein.

A series of output waves 1512 from the sample material 1510 exit thesample and have a particular orbital angular momentum imparted theretoas a result of the concentration of the particular material under studywithin the sample material 1510. The output waves 1512 are applied to amatching module 1514 that includes a mapping aperture for amplifying aparticular orbital angular momentum generated by the specific materialunder study. The matching module 1514 will amplify the orbital angularmomentums associated with the particular concentration of material thatis detected by the apparatus. The amplified OAM waves 1516 are providedto a detector 1518. The detector 1518 detects OAM waves relating to theconcentration of a material within the sample and provides thisconcentration information to a user interface 1520. The detector 1518may utilize a camera to detect distinct topological features from thebeam passing through the amyloid-beta sample. The user interface 1520interprets the concentration information and provides relevantconcentration indication to an individual or a recording device.

Referring now to FIG. 16, there is more particularly illustrated theemitter 1502. The emitter 1502 may emit a number of types of energywaves 1504 to the OAM generation module 1506. The emitter 1502 may emitoptical waves 1600, electromagnetic waves 1602, acoustic waves 1604 orany other type of particle waves 1606. The emitted waves 1504 are planewaves such as those illustrated in FIG. 7 having no orbital angularmomentum applied thereto and may come from a variety of types ofemission devices and have information included therein. In oneembodiment, the emission device may comprise a laser. Plane waves havewavefronts that are parallel to each other having no twist or helicityapplied thereto, and the orbital angular momentum of the wave is equalto 0. The Poynting vector within a plane wave is completely in line withthe direction of propagation of the wave.

The OAM generation module 1506 processes the incoming plane wave 1504and imparts a known orbital angular momentum onto the plane waves 1504provided from the emitter 1502. The OAM generation module 1506 generatestwisted or helical electromagnetic, optic, acoustic or other types ofparticle waves from the plane waves of the emitter 702. A helical wave1508 is not aligned with the direction of propagation of the wave buthas a procession around direction of propagation as shown in FIG. 17.The OAM generation module 1506 may comprise in one embodiment a fixedorbital angular momentum generator 1702 as illustrated in FIG. 17. Thefixed orbital angular momentum generator 1702 receives the plane waves1504 from the emitter 1502 and generates an output wave 1704 having afixed orbital angular momentum applied thereto.

The fixed orbital angular momentum generator 1702 may in one embodimentcomprise a holographic image for applying the fixed orbital angularmomentum to the plane wave 1504 in order to generate the OAM twistedwave 904. Various types of holographic images may be generated in orderto create the desired orbital angular momentum twist to an opticalsignal that is being applied to the orbital angular momentum generator1502. Various examples of these holographic images are illustrated inFIG. 18a-18d . In one embodiment, the conversion of the plane wavesignals transmitted from the emitter 1502 by the orbital angularmomentum generation circuitry 706 may be achieved using holographicimages.

Most commercial lasers emit an HG₀₀ (Hermite-Gaussian) mode 1902 (FIG.19) with a planar wave front and a transverse intensity described by aGaussian function. Although a number of different methods have been usedto successfully transform an HG₀₀ Hermite-Gaussian mode 1902 into aLaguerre-Gaussian mode 1904, the simplest to understand is the use of ahologram.

The cylindrical symmetric solution u_(pl) (r,φ,z) which describesLaguerre-Gaussian beams, is given by the equation:

${u_{pl}( {r,\varphi,z} )} = {{\frac{C}{( {1 + {z^{2}/z_{R}^{2}}} )^{1/2}}\lbrack \frac{r\sqrt{2}}{w(z)} \rbrack}^{l}{L_{p}^{l}\lbrack \frac{2\; r^{2}}{w^{2}(z)} \rbrack}{\exp \lbrack \frac{- r^{2}}{w^{2}(z)} \rbrack}{\exp \lbrack \frac{{- {ikr}^{2}}z}{2( {z^{2} + z_{R}^{2}} )} \rbrack}{\exp ( {{- {il}}\; \varphi} )} \times {\exp \lbrack {{i( {{2\; p} + l + 1} )}\tan^{- 1}\frac{z}{z_{R}}} \rbrack}}$

Where z_(R) is the Rayleigh range, w(z) is the radius of the beam, Lp isthe Laguerre polynomial, C is a constant, and the beam waist is at z=0.

In its simplest form, a computer generated hologram is produced from thecalculated interference pattern that results when the desired beamintersects the beam of a conventional laser at a small angle. Thecalculated pattern is transferred to a high resolution holographic film.When the developed hologram is placed in the original laser beam, adiffraction pattern results. The first order of which has a desiredamplitude and phase distribution. This is one manner for implementingthe OAM generation module 1506. A number of examples of holographicimages for use within a OAM generation module are illustrated withrespect to FIGS. 18a -18 d.

There are various levels of sophistication in hologram design. Hologramsthat comprise only black and white areas with no grayscale are referredto as binary holograms. Within binary holograms, the relativeintensities of the two interfering beams play no role and thetransmission of the hologram is set to be zero for a calculated phasedifference between zero and π, or unity for a phase difference between πand 2π. A limitation of binary holograms is that very little of theincident power ends up in the first order diffracted spot, although thiscan be partly overcome by blazing the grating. When mode purity is ofparticular importance, it is also possible to create more sophisticatedholograms where the contrast of the pattern is varied as a function ofradius such that the diffracted beam has the required radial profile.

A plane wave shining through the holographic images 1802 will have apredetermined orbital angular momentum shift applied thereto afterpassing through the holographic image 1802. OAM generator 1502 is fixedin the sense that a same image is used and applied to the beam beingpassed through the holographic image. Since the holographic image 1802does not change, the same orbital angular momentum is always applied tothe beam being passed through the holographic image 1802. While FIG.18a-18d illustrate a number of embodiments of various holographic imagesthat might be utilized within the orbital angular momentum generator1502, it will be realized that any type of holographic image 1802 may beutilized in order to achieve the desired orbital angular momentum withinan beam being shined through the image 1802.

In another example of a holographic image illustrated in FIG. 20, thereis illustrated a hologram that utilizes two separate holograms that aregridded together to produce a rich number of orbital angular momentum(l). The superimposed holograms of FIG. 20 have an orbital angularmomentum of l=1 and l=3 which are superimposed upon each other tocompose the composite vortex grid 1602. The holograms utilized may alsobe built in a manner that the two holograms are gridded together toproduce a varied number of orbital angular momentums (l) not just on aline (l=+1, l=0, l=−1) but on a square which is able to identify themany variables more easily. Thus, in the example in FIG. 16, the orbitalangular momentums along the top edge vary from +4 to +1 to −2 and on thebottom edge from +2 to −1 to −4. Similarly, along the left edge theorbital angular momentums vary from +4 to +3 to +2 and on the right edgefrom −2 to −3 to −4. Across the horizontal center of the hologram theorbital angular momentums provided vary from +3 to 0 to −3 and along thevertical axis vary from +1 to 0 to −1. Thus, depending upon the portionof the grid a beam may pass through, varying orbital angular momentummay be achieved.

Referring now to FIG. 21, in addition to a fixed orbital angularmomentum generator, the orbital angular momentum generation circuitry1506 may also comprise a tunable orbital angular momentum generatorcircuitry 2102. The tunable orbital angular momentum generator 2102receives the input plane wave 1504 but additionally receives one or moretuning parameters 2104. The tuning parameters 2104 tune the tunable OAMgenerator 2102 to apply a selected orbital angular momentum so that thetuned OAM wave 2106 that is output from the OAM generator 2102 has aselected orbital angular momentum value applied thereto.

This may be achieved in any number of fashions. In one embodiment,illustrated in FIG. 22, the tunable orbital angular momentum generator2102 may include multiple hologram images 2202 within the tunable OAMgenerator 2102. The tuning parameters 2104 enable selection of one ofthe holographic images 2206 in order to provide the desired OAM wavetwisted output signal 2106 through a selector circuit 2204.Alternatively, the gridded holographic image such as that described inFIG. 16 may be utilized and the beam shined on a portion of the griddedimage to provide the desired OAM output. The tunable OAM generator 2102has the advantage of being controlled to apply a particular orbitalangular momentum to the output orbital angular momentum wave 2106depending upon the provided input parameter 2104. This enables theconcentrations of a variety of different materials to be monitored, oralternatively, for various different concentrations of the same materialto be monitored.

Referring now to FIG. 22, there is more particularly implemented a blockdiagram of a tunable orbital angular momentum generator 2102. Thegenerator 2102 includes a plurality of holographic images 2202 forproviding orbital angular momentums of various types to a provided lightsignal. These holographic images 2202 are selected responsive to aselector circuitry 2204 that is responsive to the input tuningparameters 2104. The selected filter 2206 comprises the holographicimage that has been selected responsive to the selector controller 2204and receives the input plane waves 1504 to provide the tuned orbitalangular momentum wave output 2106. In this manner, signals having adesired orbital angular momentum may be output from the OAM generationcircuitry 1506.

Referring now to FIG. 23, there is illustrated the manner in which theoutput of the OAM generator 1506 may vary a signal by applying differentorbital angular momentum thereto. FIG. 23 illustrates helical phasefronts in which the Poynting vector is no longer parallel to the beamaxis and thus has an orbital angular momentum applied thereto. In anyfixed radius within the beam, the Poynting vector follows a spiraltrajectory around the axis. Rows are labeled by 1, the orbital angularmomentum quantum number, L=l is the beams orbital angular momentum perphoton within the output signal. For each l, the left column 2302 is thelight beam's instantaneous phase. The center column 2304 comprises theangular intensity profiles and the right column 2306 illustrates whatoccurs when such a beam interferes with a plane wave and produces aspiral intensity pattern. This is illustrated for orbital angularmomentums of −1, 0, 1, 2 and 3 within the various rows of FIG. 23.

Referring now to FIG. 24, there is illustrated an alternative manner inwhich the OAM generator 1506 may convert a Hermite-Gaussian beam outputfrom an emitter 1502 to a Laguerre-Gaussian beams having impartedtherein an orbital angular momentum using mode converters 2404 and aDove prism 2410. The Hermite-Gaussian mode plane waves 2402 are providedto a π/2 mode convertor 2404. The π/2 mode convertor 2404 produce beamsin the Laguerre-Gaussian modes 2406. The Laguerre-Gaussian modes beams2406 are applied to either a π mode convertor 2408 or a dove prism 2410that reverses the mode to create a reverse Laguerre-Gaussian mode signal2412.

Referring now to FIG. 25, there is illustrated the manner in whichholograms within the OAM generator 1506 generate a twisted light beam. Ahologram 2502 can produce light beam 2504 and light beam 2506 havinghelical wave fronts and associated orbital angular momentum lh perphoton. The appropriate hologram 2502 can be calculated or generatedfrom the interference pattern between the desired beam form 2504, 2506and a plane wave 2508. The resulting holographic pattern within thehologram 2502 resembles a diffraction grating, but has a l-prongeddislocation at the beam axis. When the hologram is illuminated with theplane wave 2508, the first-order diffracted beams 2504 and 2506 have thedesired helical wave fronts to provide the desired first ordereddiffracted beam display 2510.

Referring now to FIG. 26, there is more particularly illustrated themanner in which the sample 1510 receives the input OAM twisted wave 1508provided from the OAM generator 1506 and provides an output OAM wave1512 having a particular OAM signature associated therewith that dependsupon the concentration of a particular monitored material within thesample 1510. The sample 1510 may comprise any sample that is under studyand may be in a solid form, liquid form or gas form. The sample material1510 that may be detected using the system described herein may comprisea variety of different materials. As stated previously, the material maycomprise liquids such as blood, water, oil or chemicals. The varioustypes of carbon bondings such as C—H, C—O, C—P, C—S or C—N may beprovided for detection. The system may also detect various types ofbondings between carbon atoms such as a single bond (methane orIsooctane), dual bond items (butadiene and benzene) or triple bondcarbon items such as acetylene.

The sample 1510 may include detectable items such as organic compoundsincluding carbohydrates, lipids (cylcerol and fatty acids), nucleicacids (C,H,O,N,P) (RNA and DNA) or various types of proteins such aspolyour of amino NH₂ and carboxyl COOH or aminos such as tryptophan,tyrosine and phenylalanine Various chains within the samples 1510 mayalso be detected such as monomers, isomers and polymers. Enzymes such asATP and ADP within the samples may be detected. Substances produced orreleased by glands of the body may be in the sample and detected. Theseinclude items released by the exocrine glands via tube/ducts, endocrineglands released directly into blood samples or hormones. Various typesof glands that may have their secretions detected within a sample 1510include the hypothalamus, pineal and pituitary glands, the parathyroidand thyroid and thymus, the adrenal and pancreas glands of the torso andthe hormones released by the ovaries or testes of a male or female.

The sample 1510 may also be used for detecting various types ofbiochemical markers within the blood and urine of an individual such asmelanocytes and keratinocytes. The sample 1510 may include various partsof the body to detect defense substances therein. For example, withrespect to the skin, the sample 1510 may be used to detect carotenoids,vitamins, enzymes, b-carotene and lycopene. With respect to the eyepigment, the melanin/eumelanin, dihydroxyindole or carboxylic may bedetected. The system may also detect various types of materials withinthe body's biosynthetic pathways within the sample 1510 includinghemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, and porphyrin molecules such asprotoporphyrin, coporphyrin, uroporphyrin and nematoporphyrin. Thesample 1510 may also contain various bacterias to be detected such aspropion bacterium, acnes. Also various types of dental plaque bacteriamay be detected such as porphyromonos gingivitis, prevotella intremediand prevotella nigrescens. The sample 1510 may also be used for thedetection of glucose in insulin within a blood sample 1510.

The sample 1510 may also include amyloid-beta detection. Detection ofamyloid-beta within the sample may then be used for determinations ofearly onset Alzheimer's. Higher levels of amyloid-beta may provide anindication of the early stages of Alzheimer's.

The orbital angular momentum within the beams provided within the sample1510 may be transferred from light to matter molecules depending uponthe rotation of the matter molecules. When a circularly polarized laserbeam with a helical wave front traps a molecule in an angular ring oflight around the beam axis, one can observe the transfer of both orbitaland spin angular momentum. The trapping is a form of optical tweezingaccomplished without mechanical constraints by the ring's intensitygradient. The orbital angular momentum transferred to the molecule makesit orbit around the beam axis as illustrated at 2702 of FIG. 27. Thespin angular momentum sets the molecule spinning on its own axis asillustrated at 2704.

The output OAM wave 1512 from the sample 1510 will have an orbitalangular momentum associated therewith that is different from the orbitalangular momentum provided on the input OAM wave 1508. The difference inthe output OAM wave 1512 will depend upon the material contained withinthe sample 1510 and the concentration of these materials within thesample 1510. Differing materials of differing concentration will haveunique orbital angular momentums associated therewith. Thus, byanalyzing the particular orbital angular momentum signature associatedwith the output OAM wave 1512, determinations may be made as to thematerials present within the sample 1510 and the concentration of thesematerials within the sample may also be determined.

Referring now to FIG. 28, the matching module 1514 receives the outputorbital angular momentum wave 1512 from the sample 1510 that has aparticular signature associated therewith based upon the orbital angularmomentum imparted to the waves passing through the sample 1510. Thematching module 1514 amplifies the particular orbital angular momentumof interest in order to provide an amplified wave having the desiredorbital angular momentum of interest 1516 amplified. The matching module1514 may comprise a matching aperture that amplifies the detectionorbital angular momentum associated with a specific material orcharacteristic that is under study. The matching module 1514 may in oneembodiment comprise a holographic filter such as that described withrespect to FIGS. 18a-18d in order to amplify the desired orbital angularmomentum wave of interest. The matching module 1514 is established basedupon a specific material of interest that is trying to be detected bythe system. The matching module 1514 may comprise a fixed module usingholograms as illustrated in FIGS. 18a-18d or a tunable module in amanner similar to that discussed with respect to the OAM generationmodule 1506. In this case, a number of different orbital angularmomentums could be amplified by the matching module in order to detectdiffering materials or differing concentration of materials within thesample 1510. Other examples of components for the matching module 1514include the use of quantum dots, nanomaterials or metamaterials in orderto amplify any desired orbital angular momentum values within a receivedwave form from the sample 1510.

Referring now to FIG. 29, the matching module 1514 rather than usingholographic images in order to amplify the desired orbital angularmomentum signals may use non-linear crystals in order to generate higherorbital angular momentum light beams. Using a non-linear crystal 2902, afirst harmonic orbital angular momentum beam 2904 may be applied to anon-linear crystal 2902. The non-linear crystal 2902 will create asecond order harmonic signal 2906.

Referring now to FIG. 30, there is more particularly illustrated thedetector 1518 to which the amplified orbital angular momentum wave 1516from the matching circuit 1514 in order that the detector 1518 mayextract desired OAM measurements 2602. The detector 1518 receives theamplified OAM waves 1516 and detects and measures observable changeswithin the orbital angular momentum of the emitted waves due to theconcentration of a particular material under study within the sample1510. The detector 1518 is able to measure observable changes within theemitted amplified OAM wave 1516 from the state of the input OAM wave1508 applied to the sample 1510. The extracted OAM measurements 3002 areapplied to the user interface 1520. The manner in which the detector1518 may detect differences within the orbital angular momentum is moreparticularly illustrates with respect to FIG. 31-33.

FIG. 31 illustrates the difference in impact between spin angularpolarization and orbital angular polarization due to passing of a beamof light through a sample 3102. In sample 3102 a, there is illustratedthe manner in which spin angular polarization is altered responsive to abeam passing through the sample 3102 a. The polarization of a wavehaving a particular spin angular momentum 3104 passing through thesample 3102 a will rotate from a position 3104 to a new position 3106.The rotation occurs within the same plane of polarization. In a similarmanner, as illustrated with respect to sample 3102 b, an image appearsas illustrated generally at 3108 before it passes through the sample3102 b. Upon passing the image through the sample 3102 b the image willrotate from the position illustrated at 3110 to a rotated positionillustrated at 3112. The amount of rotation is dependent upon the levelof concentration of the material being detected within the sample 3102.Thus, as can be seen with respect to the sample 3102 of FIG. 31, boththe spin angular polarization and the orbital angular momentum willchange based upon the concentration of materials within the sample 3102.By measuring the amount of rotation of the image caused by the change inorbital angular momentum, the concentration of a particular material maybe determined.

This overall process can be more particularly illustrated in FIG. 32. Alight source 3202 shines a light beam through expanding optics 3204. Theexpanded light beam is applied through a metalab generated hologram 3206that imparts an orbital angular momentum to the beam. The twisted beamfrom the hologram 3206 is shined through a sample 3208 having aparticular length L. This causes the generation of a twisted beam on theoutput side of the sample 3208 to create a number of detectable waveshaving various orbital angular momentums 3210 associated therewith. Theimage 3212 associated with the light beam that is applied to sample 3208will rotate an angle φ depending upon the concentration of the materialwithin the sample 3208. The rotation φ of the image 3212 is differentfor each value orbital angular momentum −l or +l. The change in rotationof the image Δφ may be described according to the equation:

Δφ=(φ_(l)−φ_(-l=) f(l,L,C)

Where l is orbital angular momentum number, L is the path length of thesample and C is the concentration of the material being detected.

Thus, since the length of the sample L is known and the orbital angularmomentum may be determined using the process described herein, these twopieces of information may be able to calculate a concentration of thematerial within the provided sample.

The above equation may be utilized within the user interface moreparticularly illustrated in FIG. 33. The user interface 1520 processesthe OAM measurements 3302 using an internal algorithm 3302 that providesfor the generation of concentration information 3304 that may bedisplayed in some type of user display. The algorithm would in oneembodiment utilize that equation described herein above in order todetermine the concentration based upon the length of a sample and thedetected variation in orbital angular momentum. The process forcalculating the concentration may be done in a laboratory setting wherethe information is transmitted wirelessly to the lab or the userinterface can be associated with a wearable device connected to a meteror cell phone running an application on the cell phone connected via alocal area network or wide area network to a personal or public cloud.The user interface 3320 of the device can either have a wired orwireless connection utilizing Bluetooth, ZigBee or other wirelessprotocols.

Referring now to FIG. 34, there is illustrated the manner in which thevarious data accumulated within the user interface 1520 that has beencollected in the manner described herein above may be stored andutilized for higher level analysis. Various devices 3402 for collectingdata as described herein above may communicate via private networkclouds 3404 or with a public cloud 3406. When communicating with aprivate cloud 3404, the devices 3402 merely store information that isassociated with a particular user device that is for use with respect toanalysis of the user associated with that user device. Thus, anindividual user could be monitoring and storing information with respectto their present glucose concentrations in order to monitor and maintaintheir diabetes.

Alternatively, when information is compiled from multiple devices 3402within the public cloud 3406, this information may be provided directlyto the public cloud 3406 from the individual devices 3402 or through theprivate clouds 3404 of the associated network devices 3402. Utilizingthis information within the public cloud 3406 large databases may beestablished within servers 3408 associated with the public cloud 3406 toenable large scale analysis of various health related issues associatedwith the information processed from each of the individual devices 3402.This information may be used for analyzing public health issues.

Thus, the user interface 1520 in addition to including the algorithm3302 for determining concentration information 3304 will include awireless interface 3306 enabling the collected information to bewirelessly transmitted over the public or private cloud as describedwith respect to FIG. 34. Alternatively, the user interface may comprisea storage database 3308 enabling the collected information to be locallystored rather than transmitted wirelessly to a remote location.

Referring now to FIG. 35, there is illustrated a particular example of ablock diagram of a particular apparatus for measuring the concentrationof glucose using the orbital angular momentum of photons of a light beamshined through a glucose sample. The process creates a second-orderharmonic with helical light beam using a non-linear crystal such as thatdescribed with respect to FIG. 25. The emission module 2402 generatesplane electromagnetic waves that are provided to an OAM generationmodule 3504. The OAM generation module 3504 generates light waves havingan orbital angular momentum applied thereto using holograms to create awave having an electromagnetic vortex. The OAM twisted waves are appliedto the sample 3506 that is under study in order to detect the glucoseconcentration within a sample of blood. A rotated signature exits thesample 3506 in the manner described previously with respect to FIGS.31-32 and is provided to the matching module 3508. The matching module3508 will amplify the orbital angular momentum such that the observedconcentrations may be calculated from the orbital momentum of thesignature of the glucose. These amplified signals are provided todetection module 3510 which measures the radius of the beam w(z) or therotation of the image provided to the sample via the light beam. Thisdetected information is provided to the user interface that includes asensor interface wired or wireless Bluetooth or ZigBee connection toenable the provision of the material to a reading meter or a user phonefor the display of concentration information with respect to the sample.

In this manner concentrations of various types of material as describeherein may be determined utilizing the orbital angular momentumsignatures of the samples under study and the detection of thesematerials or their concentrations within the sample determine asdescribed.

As described above, the early onset of Alzheimer's may be determined bydetecting concentrations of amyloid-beta in the eye of a patient usingthe concentration detection techniques described herein above. Oneprocess for testing amyloid-beta concentrations is illustrated in FIG.36. A laser 3602 generates a beam that is reflected off of a mirror3604. In one embodiment, the light beam generated by laser 3602 has awavelength of a 538 nm. The reflected beam is passed through a beamsplitter 3606. A first beam 3608 interacts at a second beam splitter3610 with a hologram provided by the spatial light modulator 3612. Thespatial light modulator 3612 provides holograms for imparting OAM modesto a light beam from l=−6 to 6. The OAM twisted beam 3614 from the beamsplitter 3610 then passes through a pinhole aperture 3616. The pinholeaperture 3616 concentrates the beam to a defined area so that the energyis totally incident on the sample or cuvette. The OAM twisted beam 3614passes through a cuvette 3618 that holds the amyloid-beta sample. Theconcentration twisted beam from the cuvette 3618 is split at a beamsplitter 3620. A first beam may be imaged by a camera 3622 capturing theintensity of the OAM mode image. A second beam having OAM twisted wavesfrom the beam splitter 3620 is interfered with at 3624 with the originalbeam including only plane waves from laser 3602 that is reflected by amirror 3624 from blame splitter 3606. This enables a determination ofthe helicity and phase of the beam passing through the sample.

The detection of concentrations of amyloid-beta within a sample in thecuvette requires testing of pre-prepared amyloid-beta concentrationsthat may be tested in order to determine the amount of change impartedto an intensity OAM mode image by selected concentration values ofamyloid-beta. The preparation process for amyloid-beta concentrations isa time-consuming and expensive process. As illustrated in FIG. 37, theamyloid-beta preparation requires a two day process. The day one processinvolves an alkaline pretreatment 3702 of the amyloid beta sample, thepreparation of a filter 3704 and filtering of the amyloid beta material3706 using the filter. The alkaline pretreatment process 3702 involvesplacing of 0.7 mg of amyloid beta into a 1.5 ml micro-centrifuge tube.The mass of the amyloid-beta is determined using a balance with 100 μgresolution. The amyloid-beta is dissolved with 0.14 ml of 0.01 M NaOH.This mixture is allowed to sit for three minutes. The sample issonicated for one minute in a Branson 1800 Sonicator. A hole is pokedinto the micro-centrifuge tube, and the tube is placed into liquidnitrogen. The pierced micro-centrifuge tube is next placed into a larger50 ml tube and placed into a lyophilizer. The 50 ml tube is removed fromthe lyophilizer 24 hours later. The 1.5 ml micro-centrifuge tube withamyloid beta may be placed into a freezer at −20 degrees centigrade.

The day two preparations begin with the preparation of the filter atstep 3704. Two Millipore micro-con centrifugal filters are washed with200 μl of 10 mM phosphate buffer. The filters are placed inside two 1.5ml micro-centrifuge tubes. To begin the process of amyloid betafiltration 3706, the lyophilized amyloid beta is dissolved into 3 ml ofdistilled water and 1.5 ml of the amyloid beta solution is placed intoeach centrifugal filter. The samples are again sonicated for one minuteusing the Branson 1800 Sonicator. The 1.5 ml centrifuge tubes are placedat opposite ends in the centrifuge and centrifuged at 16,000 g forthirty minutes. The filtered amyloid beta will be within the filter andthe water will be at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. The amyloid betafiltrate may be used immediately for a period of up to 24 hours. Afterthis time period the amyloid beta filtrate is no longer good.

It is been noted that the eccentricities of the intensity imagesproduced by shining orthogonal function processed beam through aamyloid-beta sample can have variances due to a number of differingfactors. FIG. 38 illustrates an example wherein a light beam produced bya laser 3802 is altered by a hologram provided by an SLM 3804 togenerate an OAM twisted beam 3806. The OAM twisted beam in addition tobeing altered by OAM functions may also be processed using HermiteGaussian functions, Laguerre Gaussian functions or any other type oforthogonal function. The OAM twisted beam is focused through a system3808 of lenses and mirrors to direct the beam through a mode sorter3810. The beam is separated into its different modes when regenerated atmode sorter 3812 and the intensity images may be registered by a camera3814.

The beam from the laser 3802 has an inherent eccentricity ofapproximately 0.15. As illustrated in FIG. 39, there are illustratedvarious OAM modes produced by the SLM in column 3902 for l=5,4,3,2,1. Ascan be seen, there are differences between the eccentricity of the modesproduced by the SLM, and the eccentricity of the modes regenerated bythe second mode sorter 3812.

Measurements of eccentricity are performed using Photoshop and Matlab toidentify the specific signatures. Referring now to FIG. 40, there isillustrated an example of an ellipse 4002 having a radius “a” along itslong axis, a radius “b” along a short axis and a distance “c” to thefoci 4004 of the ellipse. The eccentricity of the ellipse is representedby the equation eccentricity=c/a. The eccentricity varies from 0 to 1with 0 representing a circle and 1 representing a line. The eccentricityequation is calculated according to the following equations:

$U_{xx} = {{\frac{1}{N}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}\; x_{i}^{2}}} + \frac{1}{12}}$$U_{yy} = {{\frac{1}{N}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}\; y_{i}^{2}}} + \frac{1}{12}}$$U_{xy} = {\frac{1}{N}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}\; {y_{i}x_{i}}}}$${common} = \sqrt{( {U_{xx} - U_{yy}} )^{2} + \; {4\; U_{xy}^{2}}}$${2\; a} = {2\sqrt{2}\sqrt{U_{xx} - U_{yy}\; + {common}}}$${2\; b} = {2\sqrt{2}\sqrt{U_{xx} - U_{yy}\; + {common}}}$$c = \sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}$ ${Eccentricity} = \frac{c}{a}$

where x_(i) is the x location of the pixels in the ellipse; y_(i) is they locations of the pixels in the ellipse; and N is the number of pixelsin the ellipse.

It is been found that the eccentricity is greater than 0 when noamyloid-beta sample is present within the cuvette. A number of factorscontribute to the nonzero eccentricity. OAM twisted signals have beenfound to provide different eccentricities based upon a number ofdifferent factors that may affect the index of refraction. These factorsinclude things such as the sample distribution of the amyloid-betawithin the cuvette due to gravity, the distance of the camera from thespatial light modulator and the camera angle of the camera from thespatial light modulator. Other factors affecting the eccentricity arethe cuvette positioning, the index of refraction changes do to thesample, the cuvette shape and the beam incidence and exit angle from thecuvette.

Several image processing factors have also been determined not to causechanges that are outside the margin of error. Changes based on softwareprocessing errors, a circular mask that is not OAM, the amyloid-betasitting time or the amyloid-beta interaction with the glass or plasticcomprising the sample container may provide eccentricity changes, butthe changes are not due to optical impairments caused by the cuvetteorientation, camera alignment, etc. These factors do produce somechanges in eccentricity, but they are within the margin of error and themajority of the eccentricity change is based on the signature of themolecule being detected.

Referring now to FIG. 41, there is illustrated a flow diagram foranalyzing intensity images taken by the camera 3814. The intensity imagehas applied thereto threshold double precision amplitude to enable thering to be clearly seen without extra pixels outside of the ring at step4102. Next at step 4101, both columns and rows are scanned along for theentire image. The peaks of the two largest hills and their locations aredetermined at step 4106. An ellipse is fit at step 4008 for all peaklocations found. Finally, at step 4110, a determination is made of themajor and minor axis of the ellipse, the focal point of the ellipse, thecentroid, eccentricity and orientation of the ellipse.

FIG. 42 illustrates an ellipse fitting algorithm flowchart. The X and Ypixel locations are input at step 4202 for all peaks that are found. Aninitial guess is provided at step 4204 for the conic equationparameters. The conic equation parameters comprise parameters A, B, C, Dand E for the equation Ax²+By²+Cx+Dy+E=0. The conjugate gradientalgorithm is used at step 4206 to find conic equation parameters thatprovide an optimal fit. An orientation of the ellipse is determined atstep 4208 and moved to determine the major and minor axis. Thedetermination of step 4208 is determined according to the equation

$\varphi = {\frac{1}{2}\tan^{- 1}\frac{B}{C - A}}$

The ellipse orientation is returned at step 4210 to determine thecentral point of the ellipse. Finally, at step 4212, a determination ismade if the conic equation represents an ellipse. For an ellipseparameters A and B will exist and have the same sign but will not beequal. Based upon this analysis it is been determined that lateral shiftof up to 1 mm can cause significant changes in the measured eccentricitydue to clipping of up to 0.2.

It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art having the benefit ofthis disclosure that this system and method for the early detection ofAlzheimer's by detecting amyloid-beta concentrations. It should beunderstood that the drawings and detailed description herein are to beregarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive manner, and arenot intended to be limiting to the particular forms and examplesdisclosed. On the contrary, included are any further modifications,changes, rearrangements, substitutions, alternatives, design choices,and embodiments apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope hereof, as defined by the followingclaims Thus, it is intended that the following claims be interpreted toembrace all such further modifications, changes, rearrangements,substitutions, alternatives, design choices, and embodiments.

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus for measuring a concentration ofamyloid-beta within a sample, comprising: signal generation circuitryfor generating a first signal having an applied first orbital angularmomentum signature and applying the first signal to the sample; and adetector for receiving the first signal after it passes through thesample and determining the concentration of the amyloid-beta within thesample based on a detected second orbital angular momentum signaturewithin the first signal received from the sample, the detector providingan output of the determined concentration to provide an indication ofearly onset Alzheimer's.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the secondorbital angular momentum signature further comprises a change in aneccentricity of a mode intensity, a shift in a center of gravity of themode intensity and a rotation of the ellipsoidal intensity output of themode intensity.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the detectornegates effects of at least one of sample distribution due to gravity,angle of camera recording the mode intensity to the sample, a containerholding the sample, an angle of incidence of the first beam to thesample and an angle exit of the first beam from the sample to detect thechange in the eccentricity of the mode intensity.
 4. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the second orbital angular momentum signature comprisetopological features of the first light beam after passing through thesample.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the sample is located inthe eye of a patient.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the signalgeneration circuitry further comprises: an emitting source for emittingthe first signal comprising a plurality of plane waves; and orbitalangular momentum generation circuitry for receiving the first signal andapplying the orbital angular momentum signature to the first signal toprovide an orbital angular momentum twisted signal.
 7. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the detector further includes circuitry for determininga phase of the first signal after it passes through the sample, whereinthe circuitry determines the phase by interfering the first signalhaving the second orbital angular momentum signature therein with thefirst signal having the plane waves therein.
 8. The apparatus of claim1, wherein the signal generation circuitry further comprises a hologramimplemented with at least one of an amplitude mask, a phase mask, aspatial light modulator and a digital light processor.
 9. The apparatusof claim 1, wherein the detector further comprises: an orbital angularmomentum detector for determining the detected signature of the orbitalangular momentum within the first signal from the sample; and aprocessor for determining a concentration of the amyloid-beta within thesample responsive to the detected second orbital angular momentumsignature.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein differing signaturesindicate different concentrations of the amyloid-beta within the sample.11. An apparatus for measuring a concentration of amyloid-beta within asample, comprising: an emitting source for emitting a light beamcomprising a plurality of plane waves; orbital angular momentumgeneration circuitry for receiving the light beam, applying an orbitalangular momentum signature to the first signal to provide an orbitalangular momentum twisted signal that is applied to the sample; and adetector for receiving the first signal after it passes through thesample and determining the concentration of the amyloid-beta within thesample based on a detected second orbital angular momentum signaturewithin the first signal received from the sample, wherein the secondorbital angular momentum signature further comprises a change in aneccentricity of a mode intensity, a shift in a center of gravity of themode intensity and a rotation of the ellipsoidal intensity output of themode intensity, further wherein differing signatures indicate differentconcentrations of the amyloid-beta within the sample.
 12. The apparatusof claim 11, wherein the detector negates effects of at least one ofsample distribution due to gravity, angle of camera recording the modeintensity to the sample, a container holding the sample, an angle ofincidence of the first beam to the sample and an angle exit of the firstbeam from the sample to detect the change in the eccentricity of themode intensity.
 13. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the secondorbital angular momentum signature comprise topological features of thefirst light beam after passing through the sample.
 14. The apparatus ofclaim 11, wherein the detector further determines whether theconcentration of amyloid-beta provides an indication of Alzheimer's. 15.The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the sample is located in the eye of apatient.
 16. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the signal generationcircuitry further comprises a hologram implemented with at least one ofan amplitude mask, a phase mask, a spatial light modulator and a digitallight processor.
 17. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the detectorfurther comprises: an orbital angular momentum detector for determiningthe detected second signature of the orbital angular momentum within thefirst signal from the sample; and a processor for determining aconcentration of the amyloid-beta within the sample responsive to thedetected second orbital angular momentum signature.
 18. The apparatus ofclaim 11, wherein the detector further includes circuitry fordetermining a phase of the first signal after it passes through thesample, wherein the circuitry determines the phase by interfering thefirst signal having the second orbital angular momentum signaturetherein with the first signal having the plane waves therein.
 19. Amethod for detecting and early onset of Alzheimer's based uponamyloid-beta concentration, comprising: generating a first signal havingan orbital angular momentum signature applied thereto; applying thefirst signal to the sample; receiving the first signal after it passesthrough the sample; detecting a second orbital angular momentumsignature within the received first signal; determining theconcentration of amyloid-beta within the sample based on a detectedsecond orbital angular momentum signature within the first signalreceived from the sample; and determining if the concentration ofamyloid-beta provides an indication of an early onset of Alzheimer's.20. The method of claim 19, wherein detecting further comprisesdetecting a change in an eccentricity of mode intensity, a shift in acenter of gravity of the mode intensity and a rotation of theellipsoidal intensity output of the mode intensity.
 21. The method ofclaim 20, wherein detecting further comprises negating effects of atleast one of sample distribution due to gravity, angle of camerarecording the mode intensity to the sample, a container holding thesample, an angle of incidence of the first beam to the sample and anangle exit of the first beam from the sample to detect the change in theeccentricity of the mode intensity.
 22. The method of claim 19, whereindetecting further comprises detecting a topological features of a modeintensity of the first signal after passing the first signal through thesample.
 23. The method of claim 19, wherein the step of applying furthercomprises the step of applying the first signal to an eye of a patientin a non-intrusive manner.
 24. The method of claim 19, wherein the stepof generating further comprises: emitting the first signal comprising aplurality of plane waves from a laser; receiving the first signal; andapplying the orbital angular momentum signature to the first signal toprovide an orbital angular momentum twisted signal.
 25. The method ofclaim 19, wherein the step of determining a concentration furthercomprises determining a phase of the first signal after it passesthrough the sample.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the step ofdetermining the phase further comprises interfering the first signalhaving the second orbital angular momentum signature therein with thefirst signal having the plane waves therein.
 27. The method of claim 19,wherein the step of generating the first signal further comprisesgenerating the first signal using a hologram implemented with at leastone of an amplitude mask, a phase mask, a spatial light modulator and adigital light processor.
 28. The method of claim 19, wherein differingsignatures indicate different concentrations of the amyloid-beta withinthe sample.
 29. The method of claim 19 further including: receiving thefirst signal after the first signal passes through the sample; andamplifying a first portion of the signal having the detected value ofthe orbital angular momentum associated therewith.
 30. A method fordetecting and early onset of Alzheimer's based upon amyloid-betaconcentration, comprising: performing an alkaline pretreatment on anamyloid-beta sample, the step of performing comprising: placing apredetermined amount of the amyloid-beta sample in a firstmicro-centrifuge tube; dissolving the predetermined amount of theamyloid-beta sample in NaOH; sitting the dissolved amyloid-beta samplefor a first predetermined period of time; sonicating the dissolvedamyloid-beta sample for a second predetermined period of time; piercingthe first micro-centrifuge tube; placing the first micro-centrifuge tubein liquid nitrogen; lyophilizing the amyloid-beta sample for a thirdpredetermined period of time; preparing filters for filtering thelyophilized amyloid-beta sample, the step of preparing comprising;washing two centrifugal filters with a phosphate buffer; placing each ofthe two centrifugal filters inside a micro-centrifuge tube; filteringthe lyophilized amyloid-beta sample with the filters, the step offiltering comprising: dissolving the lyophilized amyloid-beta sample indistilled water; placing the dissolved, lyophilized amyloid-beta samplein the micro-centrifuge tubes; sonicating the dissolved, lyophilizedamyloid-beta sample for a fourth predetermined period of time;centrifuging the sonicated amyloid-beta sample for a fifth predeterminedperiod of time to provide amyloid-beta test sample; generating a firstsignal having an orbital angular momentum signature applied thereto;applying the first signal to the amyloid-beta test sample; receiving thefirst signal after it passes through the amyloid-beta test sample;detecting a second orbital angular momentum signature within thereceived first signal; determining the concentration of amyloid-betawithin the amyloid-beta test sample based on a detected second orbitalangular momentum signature within the first signal received from theamyloid-beta test sample; and determining if the concentration ofamyloid-beta provides an indication of an early onset of Alzheimer's.